It marks the foundation of Western philosophy. it extends from as far as the seventh century B.C. up until the beginning of the Roman Empire. It was a revolutionary period where thinkers began to question myths, explore reason, and seek natural explanations for the universe, ethics, and human nature. Laid the foundational principles of Western thought, influencing logic, metaphysics, ethics, politics, and science.

It evolved during 3 major periods : Pre-Socratic philosophy, Classical Greek philosophy (Socrates, the Platonist, the Aristotelian), Hellenistic philosophy (the Cynic, the Stoic, the Epicurean, and the Skeptic).

1. Pre-socratic Philosophy focused on cosmology, nature, and the origin of the universe, moving away from myth to reason-based explanations.

• Milesian School 
  It was also known as the Ionian School. It was the first philosophical school in Western history, active in the 6th century BCE in Miletus, a wealthy Greek city in Ionia (modern-day western Turkey). It marks the beginning of philosophy as a rational inquiry, turning from mythological explanations (e.g., Homer, Hesiod) to natural, logical, observable causes of the world.
  
  The Major philosopher were :
  1. Thales of Miletus – “Everything is water“. Believed that water is the fundamental substance (archê) of all things. He was a mathematician and astronomer.
  
  2. Anaximander – Student of Thales, but went further: not water, but the infinite (apeiron) is the source of everything. He explained cosmic order, opposites, and natural evolution without gods and made early cosmological and biological models (e.g., life emerged from the sea).
  
  3. Anaximenes – “Everything is air through rarefaction and condensation”. Student or associate of Anaximander. He believed air was the fundamental substance. He introduced a mechanical and observable process to explain change.

• Pythagorean School
  Created by Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE), taught that reality is fundamentally mathematical and believed in reincarnation and the harmony of the cosmos.
  
• Heraclitus
  The main teaching was : “Everything flows” (panta rhei); change is the fundamental nature of reality and introduced Logos as the underlying rational principle.
  
• Parmenides
  The teaching was radical opposite of Heraclitus : “Change is illusion”, being is eternal, unchanging, and one.
  
• Empedocles & Anaxagoras
  Empedocles said All matter composed of four roots (earth, air, fire, water). Anaxagoras introduced Nous (Mind) as the cosmic ordering principle.
  
• Democritus
  Developed atomic theory: All things made of indivisible atoms. Materialist, but ethical hedonist.

2. Classical Greek philosophy dominated by Athens. Philosophy turns to ethics, politics, knowledge, and the soul.

• Socrates, who lived at the end of the 5th century B.C., was Plato’s teacher and a key figure in the rise of Athenian philosophy. Socrates practiced philosophy, in an effort to know himself, daily and even in the face of his own death. Socrates starts his discussions by prioritizing the search for definitions. In most cases, Socrates initiates his discourse with an expert on a subject by seeking a definition—by asking, for example, what virtue, goodness, justice, or courage is. To establish a definition, Socrates first gathers clear examples of a virtue and then seeks to establish what they had in common. In Plato’s Crito, in which Crito comes to Socrates’ prison cell to persuade Socrates to escape, Socrates wants to know whether escaping would be just, and imminent death does not deter him from seeking an answer to that question. (read here, here)

• Plato (427-347 B.C.) is the first of the central figures of ancient philosophy. His influenced western philosophy by developing several of its many branches: epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics. He has written about nearly all major philosophical issues and is probably most famous for his theory of universals and for his political teachings. Plato saw any political regime without the aid of philosophy or fortune as fundamentally corrupt. This attitude, however, didn’t turn Plato entirely from politics. One of his famous writing is Republic.  In the Republic, Plato examines justice, its role in our world, and its relationship to happiness. He established the Academy in Athens around 387 BC, which is considered the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Plato’s metaphysical concepts is his notion of the so-called “forms” or “ideas”. The forms can be interpreted not only as purely theoretical entities, but also as immaterial entities that give being to material entities. It posits the existence of eternal, unchanging, and perfect Forms that represent the true essence of things. Plato’s ideas have had a profound and lasting impact on Western philosophy, shaping our understanding of ethics, politics, metaphysics, epistemology, and more. Plato is also famous for being the teacher of another important philosopher, Aristotle. (read here and here)

• Aristotle (384-322B.C.) is still considered one of the greatest thinkers in the areas of politics, psychology, and ethics. Like Plato, Aristotle was a prolific writer. He wrote an estimated 200 works during his lifetime; 31 of them are still admired and studied today. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, and the arts. He gave contribution, expecially, to the theory of syllogism. As the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy in the Lyceum in Athens, he began the wider Aristotelian tradition that followed, which set the groundwork for the development of modern science. He has been referred to as the first scientist. His works contain the earliest known systematic study of logic ; he also studied animals and sought to classify them into different groups, laying the foundation for zoology today. Aristotle thought a lot about the meaning of life and about living a moral life. He laid the foundation for modern psychology. Aristotle holds his Nicomachean Ethics – the science of the good for human life, that which is the goal (at which all our actions aim), whilst Plato is indicating his Theory of Forms, and holds his Timaeus – the dialogue puts forward reasoning on the possible nature of the physical world and human beings. (read here, here, here)

3. Hellenistic philosophy was the last period in Ancient philosophy. After Alexander the Great’s death, Greek culture spread widely, and philosophy became more practical, focusing on happiness and ethics in daily life.

• Cynicism is a school of thought emphasizing virtue achieved through a natural life, rejecting societal conventions and materialism. It’s a practical philosophy focused on ethics, emphasizing living in accordance with nature rather than social expectations. Cynics valued simplicity, independence, and criticized societal norms and institutions. It actively disdained material possessions and the pursuit of wealth, believing they hindered true living and virtue. The word kynikos means “dog-like”. The “dog” became the symbol of Cynicism: free, shameless, honest, and natural. The most immediate influence for the Cynic school was Socrates. Antisthenes considered a founding figure, he was a student of Socrates and is credited with initiating the Cynic school of thought. He was deeply anti-hedonist. He said pleasure is a distraction from virtue. He attacked the ideas of Aristippus (who promoted hedonism). He taught that truth must be lived – not merely reasoned about, words must match actions – ethics is practice. Other popular figure of Cynicism was Diogenes of Sinope. He was known for extreme behavior and wit and called “Socrates gone mad”. He lived in a barrel, owned almost nothing, mocked authority. He confronted Alexander the Great, telling him: “Stand out of my sunlight.” His teaching emphasized shamelessness (anaideia) — acting openly without regard for societal shame. Crates of Thebes was another central figure in Cynicism, and one of the most influential successors of Diogenes of Sinope. He helped transmit Cynic philosophy to the next generation, including Zeno of Citium, who would go on to found Stoicism. Cynicism goals was reach freedom from needs. Cynicism’s emphasis on virtue and self-reliance influenced the development of Stoicism, which later incorporated some Cynic ideas. (read here, here)

• Stoicism originated in Athens with Zeno of Citium (a student of Crates – Zeno admired cynicism moral toughness but wanted a more structured and rational philosophy), around 300B.C. Stoic philosophy is centered on a metaphysical principle that had been already developed, among others, by Heraclitus: that reality is governed by logos, and that what happens is necessary. For Stoicism, the goal of human philosophizing is the achievement of a state of absolute tranquility. This is obtained through the progressive education to independence from one’s needs. The stoic philosopher will not fear any bodily or social condition, having trained not to depend on bodily need or any specific passion, commodity, or friendship. Most devoted its sympathizers were Cleanthes, Chrysippus, Seneca, Epictetus, the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. For the Stoics, logic (logike) was the part of philosophy which examined reason (logos). The Stoics held that an understanding of ethics was impossible without logic – to achieve a happy life—a life worth living—requires logical thought. . They held that all beings (ὄντα)—although not all things (τινά)—are material. Besides the existing beings they admitted four incorporeals (asomata): time, place, void, and sayable. Stoicism experienced a decline after Christianity became the state religion in the 4th century AD. Since then, it has seen revivals, notably in the Renaissance (Neostoicism) and in the contemporary era. Stoic philosophy was the original philosophical inspiration for modern cognitive psychotherapy. While both Cynicism and Stoicism valued virtue, Stoicism was more accepting of societal norms and laws, while Cynicism rejected them. (read here, here)

• Epicureanism is a system of philosophy founded 307 BCE based upon the teachings of Epicurus, an ancient Greek philosopher. He taught that the life worth being lived is spent seeking pleasure. Throughout history, Epicureanism has often been misunderstood as a doctrine preaching the indulgence into the most vicious bodily pleasures. On the contrary, Epicurus himself was known for his temperate eating habits, and for his moderation. His exhortations were directed towards the cultivation of friendship as well as any activity which most elevates our spirits, such as music, literature, and art. Epicurus and his followers generally withdrew from politics because it could lead to frustrations and ambitions that would conflict with their pursuit of virtue and peace of mind. Epicureanism was also characterized by metaphysical principles; among them, the theses that our world is one out of many possible worlds and that what happens does so by chance. Epicurus bigest influenced was Democritus. Like Democritus, Epicureans believed that senses also relied on atoms. Every object was continually emitting particles from itself that would then interact with the observer. All sensations, such as sight, smell, or sound, relied on these particles. According to DeWitt, Epicurus’s teachings also show influences from the contemporary philosophical school of Cynicism. The Cynic philosopher Diogenes of Sinope was still alive when Epicurus would have been in Athens for his required military training and it is possible they may have met. (read here, here, here)

• The Greek word skepsis means investigation. In Ancient philosophy, skepticism is as much concerned with belief as with knowledge. As long as knowledge has not been attained, the skeptics aim not to affirm anything. This gives rise to their most controversial ambition: a life without belief. Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360-c. 270 B.C.) is the earliest figure in ancient Greek skepticism. on record. He seems to have written no text and to have held common opinion in no consideration, hence attributing no relevance to the most basic and instinctive habits. The skeptics (among them Pyrrho, Timon, Arcesilaus, Carneades, Aenesidemus, and Sextus Empiricus) do engage with Pre-Socratic philosophy, Socrates, Protagorean relativism, Plato, and perhaps Aristotle. But their contemporary and principal interlocutors are Epicureans, Stoics, Cynics, and Megarian logicians. Doubt is often considered the hallmark of skepticism, but ancient skepticism is not about doubt. Insofar as ‘to doubt’ means no more than ‘to call into question,’ the ancient skeptics might be described as doubting things. However, skeptical investigation as Sextus Empiricus describes it does not involve doubt (Pyrrhonism), it’s a way of life focused on inquiry and the suspension of judgment (epoché) regarding the truth of any belief. It’s more about a method of investigation and a path to tranquility than a position of disbelief. This experience is described as turmoil (Machuca 2019). They aim to resolve this disturbance by settling what is true and what is false among them. But investigation leads them to suspension of judgment, which brings its own peace of mind. (read here, here)

It marks a transitional era from classical Greek philosophy to early Christian and Neoplatonic thought. This period is rich with synthesis, reinterpretation, and the preparation for medieval philosophy.

Roman Philosophy (c. 100 BCE – 200 CE) adapted Greek philosophy to suit political, ethical, and practical concerns, often focusing on ethics, civic duty, and personal conduct. Some of key philosopher of this period were from Hellenistic philosopher, such as :

1. Cicero (ecletic stoicism & skepticism). He Advocated for natural law and civic virtue, introduced Greek philosophical ideas to Latin readers, and merged Stoic ethics with Roman republican ideals.
2. Lucretius (epicureanism). He taught nature operates by atomistic laws, not divine will. He advocated for a materialist worldview and freedom from fear of gods and death.
3. Seneca (stoicism). He influenced stoic virtue ethics, self-discipline, and detachment. He was a philosopher-statesman under Nero; emphasized to inner freedom.
4. Epictetus (stoicism). He taught that events can’t be controlled ; only the response about it, and emphasis on autonomy of reason and moral purpose.
5. Marcus Aurelius (stoicism). He was an Emperor-philosopher; focused on duty, resilience, and cosmic order. He taught stoicism as a guide for personal rule and ethical leadership.

Late Antiquity Philosophy (c. 200–500 CE) was increasing religious transformation, especially the rise of Christianity and the development of Neoplatonism, a major metaphysical revival of Plato.

1. Plotinus was a founder of Neoplatonism. Neoplatonism is a profound and influential philosophical movement that began in the 3rd century CE, building on Plato’s metaphysics and combining it with mysticism, ethics, and elements of religion. It became the last major philosophical system of antiquity and deeply influenced Christian, Jewish, and Islamic thought. Plotinus taught that there’s The One (source of all reality), from which emanates Nous (Mind) and Soul. He emphasized on spiritual ascent, mystical union, and metaphysical hierarchy.
   
2. Porphyry organized Plotinus’ work; linked Neoplatonism with Aristotelian logic and criticized early Christianity – he wrote sharply against Christian doctrines, especially as Christianity began to spread and gain political influence. He also criticized scriptural contradictions and absurdities againts Bible, denied the divinity of Jesus, considered worship of a crucified man irrational, accused Christians of abandoning reason and Greek philosophy, said Christian relied too much on faith, fear, and superstition rather than logos (reason), saw Christian exclusivity as arrogant: rejecting all gods and traditions except their own, claimed Christianity was a threat to Roman religious and civic order. He warned that its rapid spread undermined traditional Hellenic religion and philosophical pluralism and saw it as an intolerant sect, not a legitimate philosophy. Yet Neoplatonism would later be adopted into Christian mysticism (e.g. Pseudo-Dionysius, Augustine). So although Porphyry fought Christianity, his metaphysics eventually shaped it.
   
3. Iamblichus further systematized Neoplatonism. He Introduced theurgy (rituals to unite with the divine) and emphasized the divine hierarchy, blending philosophy with religious practice.
   
4. Christian Thinkers (esp. Alexandrian School)
   Heavily influenced by Greek philosophy, especially Platonism and Stoicism.
   
   a. Origen of Alexandria
   He was an early Church scholar; founder of Christian theology and biblical exegesis. He advocated allegorical interpretation ; scripture has literal, moral, and spiritual meanings. He was the head of the catechetical school of Alexandria. His philosophy was platonist and christian mysticism and emphasized rational soul and pre-existence of souls. He believed in apokatastasis, eventual restoration of all souls, including demons (it’s highly controversial). Souls fall by choice; no inherited guilt. He viewed souls can return to God freely – grace is important, but not strictly necessary.
   
   b. Augustine of Hippo
   He converted to Christianity after youthful indulgence and time with Manichaeism and Neoplatonism. He developed the doctrine of original sin — humanity inherits guilt and broken will from Adam. He viewed salvation comes only through God’s grace, not human effort, and humans have free will, but it is enslaved by sin without grace. He believed strong formulation of Trinitarian equality. He was central figure in shaping Western Christianity, Catholic doctrine, Calvinism, and even existentialism. He influenced medieval theology, Luther, Calvin, Pascal, Kierkegaard, and many more.

It represents the philosophical thought of Western Europe during the Middle Ages, situated between the fall of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance. It was deeply shaped by religion, especially Christianity and sought to reconcile Greek philosophy, particularly the works of Plato and Aristotle combined with Christian doctrine using logic and reason. 

Medieval philosophy encompasses Latin, Greek (Byzantine), Arabic, and Jewish traditions, all rooted in the philosophical schools of Late Antiquity. 

Some key of Medieval philosophy were :

Christian thinker :
The goals were to understand, explain, and defend Christian faith using reason, particularly in relation to Greek philosophy, scripture, and Church doctrine (to defend the faith against Heresies & Non-Christians and also clarify difficult doctrine).

1. Boethius (c. 480–524)
He was Roman senator, Christian philosopher, and translator of Greek philosophy into Latin. He was key of The Consolation of Philosophy; early bridge between classical and Christian thought; fate, providence, free will. His signature idea was God sees all time as present.

2. Anselm of Canterbury
He was Archbishop of Canterbury; considered the father of Scholastic theology. He invented the Ontological Argument for God’s existence; explored faith seeking understanding (fides quaerens intellectum). He introduced Atonement Theory (Cur Deus Homo) Christ’s death as a satisfaction for human sin, and the key to medieval theology. His signature idea was God exists by definition – God is “that than which nothing greater can be conceived”, and must exist in reality, not just the mind.

3. Peter Abelard
He was a brilliant logician, and controversial theologian. He said sin depends not just on the act, but on the intent behind it, a move toward psychological ethics (Scito te ipsum – “Know Thyself”). He introduced dialectic method in theology; known for Sic et Non (“Yes and No”).

4. Thomas Aquinas
He was a Dominican friar; master synthesizer of Aristotle and Christian theology. He wrote Summa Theologica (a work of systematic theology – intended for theology students) and Summa Contra Gentiles (a work of apologetics directed towards non-Christians – to defend and to give understanding). Thomas Aquinas, in his Summa Theologica, proposed five ways to prove the existence of God, often referred to as the “Five Ways” (the Argument from Motion, the Argument from Efficient Cause, the Argument from Contingency, the Argument from Degrees of Perfection, the Argument from Design).

Jewish Thinker :
The goal was to harmonize Jewish faith with Greek philosophy (especially Platonism, Aristotelianism) while defending against Islamic and Christian challenges.

1. Saadia Gaon (882–942 CE)
He was the Head of the Talmudic academy in Sura (Babylonia); pioneer of Jewish rationalism. He wrote Emunoth ve-Deoth; reconciled Jewish faith with rationalism. His ideas were religion must be based on reason as well as revelation and combines rational argument with defense of rabbinic tradition. He said universe created ex nihilo (from nothing).

2. Solomon ibn Gabirol
He was a poet, philosopher, mystic — influenced Christian Neoplatonists (like Aquinas indirectly). He wrote Fons Vitae (“The Fountain of Life”), it was written in Arabic; later translated into Latin. In essence, Ibn Gabirol’s Neoplatonism was characterized by its emphasis on the unity of God, the emanation of all things from God, the concept of universal hylomorphism, and the crucial role of divine will in mediating between the divine and the created order.

3. Judah Halevi
He was a poet-philosopher, physician; deeply critical of over-reliance on philosophy. He wrote The Kuzari — philosophical dialogue between a rabbi and the King of the Khazars. He emphasized Jewish chosenness and direct religious experience. Unlike Greek thought, He said, the God of Israel acts in history (Exodus, prophecy). He believed historical revelation over speculative reason.

4. Moses Maimonides (Rambam)
He was a Rabbi, physician, philosopher; the great synthesizer of Judaism and Aristotelianism. He wrote Guide for the Perplexed; harmonized Aristotelian reason and Jewish law – it was written for educated Jews struggling with reason vs. faith. It was very influential on Aquinas.

Islamic Thinker :
The goal was to develop profound insights in metaphysics, ethics, epistemology, and political philosophy. These philosophers worked at the intersection of revelation (Qur’an), reason (ʿaql), and Greek philosophy, especially Aristotle and Neoplatonism. They shared several goals with Christian philosophers — but also had unique motivations rooted in Islamic theology (kalām), jurisprudence (fiqh), and mystical thought (Sufism).

1. Al-Kindi (c. 801–873 CE)
He was known as the “Philosopher of the Arabs,” he was the first to systematically introduce Greek philosophy into the Arabic-speaking world. His ethic was “true happiness comes from knowing God“, and it influenced later Sufi thinking.

2. Al-Farabi
He was called the “Second Teacher” (after Aristotle) and became major political philosopher and metaphysician. He combined Plato and Aristotle and theory of the ideal Islamic state – ruled by a philosopher-prophet (Muhammad). He taught God does not act by will, but through necessary emanation (from Neoplatonism). He said philosophy is the highest path to happiness, complementing religion.

3. Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā)
He was the greatest Islamic Aristotelian–Neoplatonist; master of medicine, metaphysics, and logic. He developed Neoplatonic-Aristotelian metaphysics; concept of Necessary Being (God exists necessarily; all other things exist contingently, through Him). He taught the soul seeks perfection through knowledge, ascending to the divine. He wrote the Book of Healing, the Canon of Medicine, and Metaphysics of the Shifāʾ.

4. Al-Ghazālī
He was a theologian and mystic who critiqued philosophy yet also used it to support Islamic spirituality. He criticized Avicenna for undermining Islamic doctrine (Specifically, Ghazali attacked Avicenna’s realism, claiming it implied God’s actions were necessitated by his essence, thus limiting God’s freedom. He also challenged Avicenna’s views on the relationship between God, the world, and the soul, finding inconsistencies in Avicenna’s arguments). He taught true knowledge comes from inner spiritual experience, not just logic, and emphasized heart purification, sincerity, and love of God.

5. Averroes (Ibn Rushd)
He was a chief judge and physician in Córdoba, a major Aristotelian commentator ; “The Commentator”, argued that philosophy and religion are complementary — truth cannot contradict truth. He suggested that different audiences (masses vs philosophers) may require different expressions of truth. He supported Aristotle that the universe has always existed — this led to rejection by Islamic orthodoxy. For political philosophy, he said philosophy can perfect religion, and rulers must be trained in philosophy.

There were seven key themes define much of medieval philosophy. Thinkers like Aquinas, Avicenna, Maimonides, Anselm, and Averroes tackled them from different perspectives, blending Greek philosophy with theological commitments.

It was a shift from theocentric (God-centered) to anthropocentric (human-centered) philosophy. It inspired by Greek and Roman classics, newly recovered through Byzantine and Islamic transmission. It linked to art, science, education, and politics, not just religion.

Renaissance means “rebirth”, and Renaissance philosophy was a rebirth of classical Greek and Roman thought, reshaped to address the cultural, religious, and political changes of early modern Europe.

Renaissance philosophy focused on :

Some of key figures in Renaissance philosophy :

1. Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494) from Italy
   “Man is the measure of all things…”
   * Wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486)
   * Attempted to synthesize various philosophical and religious traditions ; Plato, Aristotle, Christianity, Jewish Kabbalah, and Islamic philosophy (Sufi). 
   * Believed human freedom is the key to human dignity: we can rise to angels or fall to beasts.
   
2. Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) from Italy
   “The soul exists partly in eternity and partly in time”
   * Translator of Plato and Plotinus into Latin.
   * Leader of Florentine Neoplatonism (a philosophical movement that blended Plato’s ideas with Christian thought, deeply influencing Renaissance art, literature, and intellectual life).
   * Taught the soul’s ascent to God through love and beauty.
   * Blended Christianity and Platonic mysticism.
   
3. Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) from Italy
   “It is better to be feared than loved, if you cannot be both”
   * Wrote The Prince (1513).
   * Father of modern political science.
   * Emphasized realism: rulers must often act immorally to maintain power.
   
4. Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536) from Netherlands
   “In the kingdom of the blind, the one-eyed man is king”
   * Christian humanist; critical of Church corruption.
   * Advocated inner piety, education, tolerance.
   * Wrote In Praise of Folly, a satirical critique of scholasticism and clerical hypocrisy.
   
5. Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) from France
   “Que sais-je?” (“What do I know?”)
   * Father of the essay as a literary-philosophical form.
   * Deeply skeptical: emphasized uncertainty, personal experience, and tolerance.
   * Influenced Descartes, Pascal, and existentialist thought.
   
6. Giordano Bruno (1548–1600) from Italy
   “God is in all things”
   * Extended Copernican cosmology to infinite worlds.
   * Believed in universal spirit and pantheism.
   * Condemned by the Church and burned at the stake for heresy.

Renaissance philosophy laid foundations for

• Modern science (via naturalism and mathematics)
• Political realism (Machiavelli)
• Religious reform (Erasmus, Bruno)
• Rationalism and skepticism (Montaigne → Descartes)

Prepared the way for the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment.

A period of radical transformation in how people thought about knowledge, reality, politics, science, and the self. This era marks the birth of modern Western philosophy, moving away from ancient and medieval frameworks.

Its new focus weas on empirical observation, mathematics, and natural laws (Galileo, Newton). This time was also the birth of political theory (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau). Reason, autonomy, and human rights became central philosophical values.

The main traditions of epistemology are Rationalism and Empiricism.

The keys of his early modern philosophy are :

1. René Descartes
   
   “Dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum” – “I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am”
   
   * Father of Modern Philosophy.
   * Doubt everything to find certainty.
   * Posits the existence of two distinct types of substances: the mind (or soul) and the body.
   * He believed the mind is born with certain ideas, especially those that come from pure reason, not the senses.
   * He explained three kinds of ideas :
   A. Innate ideas – born in the mind (e.g. God, the self, math, perfection.
   B. Adventitious ideas – come from the senses (e.g. heat, noise)
   C. Invented ideas – made by the imagination (e.g. unicorns)
   Rationalist.
   
2. Baruch Spinoza
   
   “Deus sive Natura” – “God or Nature”
   
   * Pantheism (God with the totality of nature), meaning that God is not a separate entity but is immanent in all things. Spinoza’s God is not a personal, intervening deity, but rather the fundamental, underlying substance of the universe. 
   * Determinism (everything in the universe, including human actions, is causally determined by preceding events and the laws of nature).
   * Pioneer in biblical criticism. He applied rational and historical-critical methods to the study of the Bible, challenging traditional interpretations and authorship claims. 
   
3. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
   
   “This is the best of all possible worlds”
   
   * He invented calculus (with Newton)
   * Monad theory. Leibniz’s monad theory says that everything in the universe is made up of tiny, invisible, soul-like units called monads that don’t interact with each other but act in perfect harmony because God programmed them that way.
   * He believed harmony between reason and faith.
   
4. John Locke
   
   “The mind is a blank slate” – “Tabula rasa”
   
   * English philosopher and physician.
   * All knowledge is built through: Sensation (external), Reflection (internal thought).
   * Rejected Descartes’s idea of inborn truths or ideas.
   * Often called the “Father of Liberalism”.
   * Knowledge gained only through experience.
   * The self is not substance, but a continuity of consciousness.
   * He argued that the human mind can form abstract general ideas — concepts that aren’t tied to any specific example (triangularity).
   * Strong influence on: The American Revolution, The Enlightenment, Modern theories of mind, education, and government.
   
5. George Berkeley
   
   “Esse est percipi” – “To be is to be perceived”
   
   * Irish philosopher and Anglican bishop.
   * One of the great early modern empiricists, alongside Locke and Hume.
   * He rejected Locke’s theory of abstract general ideas (e.g. “triangularity” without any shape). All ideas must be particular and concrete, tied to perception.
   * Known for developing immaterialism or idealism.
   * Defended religion, attacked materialism and skepticism.
   * He believed that words don’t refer to abstract ideas, but rather to practical use or sensory experience.
   
6. David Hume
   
   “All the objects of human reason or inquiry may naturally be divided into two kinds: relations of ideas, and matters of fact”
   
   * He was one of the most influential philosophers in the Enlightenment and a key figure in empiricism, skepticism, and the development of modern psychology, ethics, and science.
   * He believed morality is not based on logic or reason but on emotion and feeling.
   * He denied the idea of a stable, permanent “self.”
   * He argued that cause and effect is not something we can rationally prove — we only observe one thing following another.
   * He believed all knowledge comes from experience — not reason, not faith, not logic alone.
   * He was a skeptic of religious claims, especially miracles.
   
7. Immanuel Kant
   
   “Sapere aude!” – “Dare to know!”
   
   * One of the most important and influential philosophers in Western thought, especially known for epistemology, ethics, metaphysics, and bridging rationalism and empiricism.
   * Founder of German idealism (German Idealists generally believed that reality is fundamentally mental or spiritual in nature. They argued that the world as we experience it is shaped by our minds and consciousness, rather than being entirely independent of them).
   * His philosophy shaped the modern understanding of knowledge, morality, and freedom
   * Kant said pure reason cannot prove God’s existence, the soul, or immortality. But these ideas are necessary for moral reasoning, we must postulate them to make sense of moral responsibility.
   

Figures in Political philosophy (1600-1800)

A crucial period shaped by the Enlightenment, the rise of modern states, and revolutions in England, America, and France. This was the end of medieval divine-right monarchy. Scientific revolution started to inspires reason-based politics. This era was started of rising ideas of natural rights, freedom, democracy, secularism, and major influence on constitutional law, republicanism, and liberalism.

A time of massive philosophical change, responding to the Enlightenment, the French Revolution, industrialization, and emerging science. This period gave rise to new ways of understanding society, existence, history, and the individual.

Major movement in this century :

1. German Idealism

Mind and reality evolve through dialectical logic

2. Existentialism (early form)

Truth is personal; anxiety, freedom, faith

3. Marxism / Social philosophy

Class struggle, material history, social change

4. Utilitarianism

Morality is happiness and consequences

5. Positivism & Science of Society

Society should be studied like science

6. Nihilism

Collapse of absolute values; denial of inherent meaning, truth, or morality

7. Pessimism

Life is dominated by suffering; happiness is illusion, driven by blind “Will”

8. Anarchism / Radical Politics

Rejection of state, religion, and imposed authority

9. Decadence / Fin-de-Siècle Culture

Cultural mood of decline, artificiality, and aesthetic rebellion against bourgeois values.

A century defined by world wars, totalitarianism, scientific revolutions, decolonization, and intense debates about language, consciousness, identity, and power.

The thought that shaped 20th century philosophy were the collapse of certainty after WWI & WWII, rise of totalitarianism, mass media, and technology, increasing focus on language, meaning, and subjectivity, colonialism, racism, patriarchy all came under critique, explosion of new fields, such as psychology, linguistics, computers, and AI.

There were some major movement in philosophy,

1. Analytic Philosophy (Anglo-American)

Analytic Philosophy is a tradition that emphasizes,

• Clarity of argument
• Logical analysis
• Precise use of language
• Scientific rigor over metaphysical speculation

It developed as a reaction against idealism (like Hegel) and continental metaphysics, aiming to make philosophy as clear and rigorous as math or science.

With key philosopher such as : Bertrand Russell, G.E. Moore (in early time), Ludwig Wittgenstein (in early and later time), A.J. Ayer, W.V.O. Quine, Gilbert Ryle, Saul Kripke (In later time).

2. Continental Philosophy (Europe & Latin America)

Continental Philosophy isn’t a single doctrine, it’s a broad category of European thought that: prioritizes critique, interpretation, and lived experience, emerged as a response to rationalism, science, and modernity, focuses on experience, history, power, language, subjectivity, often resists abstraction or reductionism (unlike Analytic Philosophy).

Key philosopher at this time were Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Albert Camus, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Paul Ricoeur, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Gilles Deleuze, Theodor Adorno & Max Horkheimer, Herbert Marcuse, Jürgen Habermas.

Latin America had philosophy evolved at that time, and their core philosopher were Enrique Dussel, Leopoldo Zea, Gloria Anzaldúa (Chicana).

3. Pragmatism (American)

Pragmatism is a distinctly American philosophy that,

• Defines truth and meaning in terms of practical consequences
• Emphasizes experience, experimentation, and change
• Sees knowledge as a tool for problem-solving
• Avoids fixed, absolute truths in favor of what “works” in context

It developed in response to both rationalism and empiricism, offering a middle path focused on real-life utility and human purposes. It deeply tied to democracy, science, education, and experience.

The core philosopher on pragmatis philosophy were :

4. Political & Social Philosophy

It was focusing on how philosophers responded to war, totalitarianism, capitalism, race, gender, democracy, and freedom.

Political and social philosophy examines,

• Power, authority, and legitimacy
• The rights and duties of individuals and governments
• The structure of society, including justice, class, race, gender, and oppression
• Ethics of collective life: law, economics, violence, and resistance

After WWI & WWII: Arendt and Habermas worried about totalitarianism and mass politics.

Cold War: Rawls & Nozick debated justice vs. liberty in capitalism vs. socialism.

Postcolonial world: Fanon and Said analyzed how Western power shaped identity.

Civil Rights & Feminism: De Beauvoir, Hooks, and Butler critiqued oppression in liberal societies.

Globalization & Neoliberalism: Critics asked whether democracy and justice can survive the global market.

Highlighting major trends, thinkers, and emerging areas. Unlike earlier periods, philosophy today is pluralistic, global, interdisciplinary, and actively engages with technology, identity, ecology, and global justice

Major Contemporary Movement at this time were :

1. Critical Race Theory & Intersectional Feminism

Critical Race Theory (CRT) emerged in the late 20th century (1980s–1990s) in legal studies and expanded across philosophy, sociology, education, and politics. It argues that:

• Racism is systemic, not just individual prejudice
• Law and institutions reproduce inequality even when they claim neutrality
• Race is socially constructed but has real-world consequences
• Emphasizes storytelling and lived experience of marginalized people

Intersectional Feminism expands feminism by recognizing that gender oppression intersects with other forms of discrimination : race, class, sexuality, disability, religion, etc.

• Coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw (1989) to describe how Black women face overlapping oppressions.
• Challenges white, middle-class feminism that ignores the diversity of women’s experiences.
• Closely linked to Black feminism, queer theory, indigenous feminism, and decolonial thought.

2. Posthumanism & New Materialism

Posthumanism is a philosophical movement that critiques the traditional “human” as the central subject of thought. It challenges:

• Human exceptionalism (that humans are fundamentally different from other beings)
• Enlightenment ideals of the rational, autonomous, white male subject
• The Anthropocene (age of human-caused ecological damage)

Posthumanism expands ethics, agency, and politics beyond humans, to include animals, machines, ecosystems, and nonliving matter.

New Materialism focuses on the active, dynamic nature of matter—it is not passive or inert but alive with forces, relations, and agency. It challenges old dualisms:

• Mind vs. body
• Human vs. nature
• Culture vs. matter

New Materialism sees matter itself as relational and meaningful, shaping human experience just as much as thought or language.

Shared goals this time :

Philosopher at this time period :

Explanation about thought that delivered :

There’s some philosophical shift with this period, such as :

• From “I think, therefore I am” to “We become with others”.
• From autonomy to relational entanglement.
• From rational human control to ethics of care, co-existence, and unpredictability.

3. Speculative Realism & Object-Oriented Ontology (OOO)

Speculative Realism is a loosely connected philosophical movement that began in the late 2000s, united by one basic goal:

To think reality without privileging human access to it.

It opposes the “correlationism” of 20th-century philosophy, the idea that we can only know the world as it appears to us. Speculative realists want to speak about what reality is, in itself, not just how humans interpret it.

OOO is a branch of speculative realism that focuses on objects, not just physical ones, but anything that exists (ideas, galaxies, cotton balls, institutions).

It argues that all objects exist equally and have hidden depths, regardless of whether humans interact with them.

OOO resists the idea that objects only gain meaning in relation to us. It offers a “flat ontology” where humans, rocks, emotions, and algorithms are all equally real.

The ideas that delivered were :

The OOO’s view of objects were :

And the key thinker were :

It applied on :

4. Decolonial & Indigenous Philosophy

Decolonial Philosophy seeks to:

• Expose and undo the colonial structures still embedded in modern thought, knowledge, and institutions
• Challenge Western modernity as a global standard for truth, reason, and progress
• Recenter the knowledge, voices, and epistemologies of the Global South

Indigenous Philosophy is rooted in the worldviews, ethics, and oral traditions of Indigenous peoples. It emphasizes:

• Relationality: everything is interconnected (humans, animals, land, spirits, time)
• Place based knowledge: wisdom comes from land, ancestry, and community
• Collective ethics over individual autonomy
• Balance and reciprocity instead of domination and extraction

It is often oral, communal, ecological, and transmitted through ritual, story, and action—not books alone.

They had shared goals, such as :

The key contributor were :

The explanation about concepts :

5. Digital Philosophy & Tech Ethics

Digital Philosophy explores the metaphysical, ethical, and social implications of living in a technologically mediated world. It draws on metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and political theory, often intersecting with AI ethics, media theory, and posthumanism.

Tech Ethics is a practical and philosophical field concerned with how technologies affect human values, rights, and justice. Tech ethics focuses on real-world impacts and calls for accountability, transparency, and human dignity in digital systems.

The key thinker were :

Explanation of the concepts :

These (21st-century and contemporary) philosophy is going toward global, pluralist conversations (not just European thought), greater interdisciplinarity: combining philosophy with biology, AI, ecology, literature, activism, emphasis on ethics, identity, survival, and planetary responsibility, reviving ancient, indigenous, and spiritual frameworks for a fractured world.

Ancient Indian philosophy encompasses orthodox (Āstika) schools aligned with the Vedas and heterodox (Nāstika) schools that reject Vedic authority. These traditions explore the nature of reality, the self (ātman), karma, rebirth, suffering, and liberation (moksha/nirvāṇa).

It is both spiritual and rational, mixing meditation, metaphysics, and rigorous logic.

The goals of this philosophy were liberation (moksha/nirvāṇa) from the cycle of birth and death, realization of true self or no-self, harmony with dharma and the cosmic order, intellectual clarity and experiential insight, ethical living, nonviolence, and inner discipline.

Key concept of this philosophy were :

1. Orthodox (Āstika) schools

These six schools accept the authority of the Vedas and aim for moksha (liberation):

2. Heterodox (Nāstika) schools

These schools reject the Vedas but still seek truth and liberation:

Foundational text of this philosophy :

Ancient Chinese philosophy emerged in a time of political instability and social change, especially during the Spring and Autumn (770–476 BCE) and Warring States (475–221 BCE) periods.

Thinkers responded to the moral and political crisis by developing systems of thought to cultivate personal virtue and restore harmony to the world. Chinese philosophy prioritizes ethical life, political order, and cosmic balance over abstract metaphysics.

1. Confucianism (儒家, Rújiā)

The founder was Confucius (Kǒngzǐ, 551–479 BCE). His ideas to this philosophy were Ren (humaneness), Li (ritual), Yi (righteousness), filial piety, moral leadership. The goals with this philosophy was cultivating virtue in self to family to state and the world. Later figures with this philosophy were Mencius (believed humans are naturally good) and Xunzi (believed humans are naturally selfish and need education & ritual). Texts or books to read were Analects, Book of Rites, Mencius, and Xunzi.

“To govern is to rectify.”

2. Daoism (Taoism) (道家, Dàojiā)

The founder of this thought was Laozi (Lao Tzu), Zhuangzi. The core ideas were Dao (the Way), Wu Wei (non-action or effortless action), naturalness, humility, spontaneity. And the goals for it was aligning with the Dao; live simply and harmoniously with nature. Daoism values flexibility, paradox, and nature—resisting rigid rules and artificial systems. Texts and books for it were Dao De Jing (Tao Te Ching), and Zhuangzi

“Those who know do not speak. Those who speak do not know.”

3. Legalism (法家, Fǎjiā)

Legalism influenced the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE), which unified China under harsh rule. The key figures at times were Han Feizi, Shang Yang, and Li Si. Text and books that can be read were Han Feizi, Book of Lord Shang. The ideas of this philosophy were the thought of human nature is selfish, and needs strict laws, punishment, and centralized control, then making state stability through law, not morality.

“People are motivated by profit.”

4. Mohism (墨家, Mòjiā)

Mohism opposed Confucian rituals and promoted rational, utilitarian ethics and pacifism. The founder was Mozi (Mo Di, c. 470–391 BCE), and its text was the same name, Mozi. The key ideas of this philosophy were universal love (jiān ài 兼爱), meritocracy, anti-ritualism, and frugality. The goals with this philosophy were creating social equality and reduce suffering.

“Care for all equally, oppose aggression.”

5. School of Yin-Yang & Five Elements (阴阳家)

The founder were Zou Yan (a Chinese cosmologist) and others. The key concept of this philosophy were Yin and Yang (duality in harmony), Five Elements (wood, fire, earth, metal, water). It influenced the evolution of thought on acosmology, medicine, and governance. This school integrated natural science, astrology, and philosophy to explain change and harmony, and the goals were to understand cosmic cycles to align state and society with nature.

The impact they were making :

• Confucianism became the state ideology of China (esp. during the Han dynasty).
• Daoism influenced Chinese medicine, art, alchemy, and martial arts.
• Legalism laid the groundwork for bureaucratic statecraft.
• Mohism declined politically but impacted logic and ethics.
• Chinese philosophy values harmony, family, hierarchy, and moral cultivation, influencing East Asia (Korea, Japan, Vietnam).

Buddhism began in India (6th–5th century BCE), but by 100 CE, it had begun declining in its homeland due to Hindu revival and loss of royal patronage. Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire helped spread Buddhism through South Asia and into Central Asia via missionaries. Named Ashoka’s Mission (c. 250 BCE).

China

Buddhist monks and traders brought Mahayana texts into Han China (c. 1st–2nd century CE). It came via Silk Road. Then there was translation movement. Kumarajiva (344–413 CE) and Xuanzang (602–664 CE) were key translators who adapted Sanskrit sutras into Chinese. Early Chinese Buddhist thought often blended with native Daoist concepts, making integration (buddhism) with Daoism.

At the Golden Age of China (Tang Dynasty, 618–907 CE), it influenced by art and architecture. Cave temples like Dunhuang and Longmen Grottoes were built and decorated. Then, there was support from Imperial Court. Buddhism flourished and monasteries gained wealth and land.

It was also developed in school by Tiantai (focus on Lotus Sutra), Huayan (interconnectedness), Chan (Zen) Buddhism (emphasis on meditation and sudden enlightenment). Decline:

But, it came to decline period in 845 CE, Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution under Emperor Wuzong. Buddhism seen as foreign and economically burdensome, and thousands of monasteries destroyed.

Korea

It came by Three Kingdoms Period (4th century CE) ; Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla each adopted Buddhism (c. 372–528 CE). It used to legitimize kingship and unify people.

During Unified Silla (668–935), Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Grotto built and made Buddhism as state ideology.

During Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392), Buddhism intertwined with statecraft and aristocracy. It had development of Tripitaka Koreana (c. 1236–1251), a complete woodblock printing of Buddhist canon to protect Korea from Mongol invasion.

Japan

Buddhism was introduced via Korean kingdom of Baekje to Yamato court, and initially opposed by conservative clans, but supported by reformists (c. 552 CE).

During Nara Period (710–794), state-sponsored Buddhism (e.g., Todai-ji Temple, Great Buddha of Nara). In this era, Buddhism and politics closely linked.

During Heian Period (794–1185), it spread through the rise of esoteric sects, Tendai (by Saichō) and Shingon (by Kūkai).

Kamakura Period (1185–1333) was rising of popular Buddhism : Pure Land (by Hōnen and Shinran) was emphasizing on Amida Buddha and faith, Nichiren Buddhism was focusing on the Lotus Sutra and chanting, and Zen Buddhism (Rinzai and Sōtō) was Appealing to samurai ethos.

Vietnam

Buddhism introduced during Han Chinese domination, influenced by Chinese Mahayana. Buddhist monasteries became centers of resistance and education. During Lý and Trần Dynasties (11th–14th century) Buddhism was state-supported and culturally dominant. Buddhist monk Trần Nhân Tông even became a king and later founded Vietnamese Zen (Thiền).

In summary :

It had cultural and religious impact :

Education: Monasteries as centers of literacy, printing, and philosophy.

Art & Architecture: Buddhist iconography, cave temples, woodblock texts.

Philosophy: Interplay with Confucianism and Daoism led to unique East Asian syncretism.

Political: Emperors used Buddhism to legitimize rule or justify wars (e.g., Divine Protection).

LATER HINDU PHILOSOPHY (900–1800 CE)

This period followed the classical era of the six orthodox (āstika) schools and witnessed new Vedānta sub-schools, Bhakti movements, and Tantric revivals, amidst Islamic rule (Delhi Sultanate, Mughal Empire) and emerging regional kingdoms.

1. Vedānta School Expansions

Vedānta became the dominant Hindu philosophical discourse. Several new interpretations emerged:

• Advaita Vedānta (Non-dualism)
  * Founder: Śaṅkara (early 8th century, but influence extended into this period)
  * Figures: Vidyāraṇya (14th c.), Appayya Dīkṣita (16th c.)
  * Key Ideas: Brahman is the only reality; the world is Māyā (illusion), Atman = Brahman.

• Viśiṣṭādvaita (Qualified Non-dualism)
  * Founder: Rāmānuja (11th–12th c.)
  * Key Ideas: Brahman has attributes and is the inner self of all, devotional worship of Vishnu as the supreme being, the world is real and not illusory.

• Dvaita (Dualism)
  * Founder: Madhva (13th c.)
  * Key Ideas: Sharp distinction between individual soul (jīva) and God (Vishnu), salvation through God’s grace, not identity with Brahman.

• Other Vedāntic Systems:
  Achintya Bheda-Abheda: Chaitanya (15th–16th c.), simultaneous oneness and difference.
  Śuddhādvaita: Vallabha (16th c.), emphasizes Krishna Bhakti.

2. Bhakti Movement Philosophy

Focused on emotional devotion (bhakti) over ritual or caste.
It features:

• Rejected ritualism, caste, and elite Brahmanical control.
• Open to all genders and classes.
• Often composed in vernacular languages.

Notable Bhakti Saints:

3. Tantra & Shakta Philosophy

It revived in both Shaiva and Shakta traditions. It emphasized on divine feminine (Devi).
Kashmir Shaivism, also known as the Trika system, is a non-dualistic Hindu philosophical and religious tradition that originated in Kashmi. Abhinavagupta (c. 950–1020) systematized a sophisticated non-dual metaphysics, blending Veda, Tantra, and aesthetics.

4. Navya-Nyāya (“New Logic”)

• Evolved from the classical Nyāya school.
• Key Center: Mithila (Bihar), Navadvipa (Bengal).
• Founders: Gangeśa Upādhyāya (12th–13th c.)
• Focused on epistemology (pramāṇa), logic, and precise language analysis.

LATER JAIN PHILOSOPHY (900–1800 CE)

Jainism survived Islamic invasions largely by retreating into regional pockets, especially in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. Philosophical work continued, especially in scholastic commentaries and debate traditions.

1. Digambara Developments

• Scholars:
  * Akhalaṅka (8th c. but influential later): Defended Jain logic (syādvāda) against Nyāya.
  * Vadirāja (10th c.), Nemichandra (10th c.): Textual commentators.
  * Vidyananda and Prabhācandra: Advanced Jain metaphysics and logic.
  
• Key Texts:
  Gommatasāra by Nemichandra
  Commentaries on Tattvārtha-sūtra

2. Śvetāmbara Developments

• Scholars :
  * Abhayadeva Sūri (11th c.): Commentator on Jain Agamas.
  * Hemachandra (1089–1172): Polymath; wrote on grammar, logic, ethics, and politics. Advisor to King Kumārapāla (Chaulukya dynasty).
  * Promoted religious tolerance between Jains, Hindus, Buddhists.

3. Jain Logic & Epistemology

• Jainism emphasized:
  • Anekāntavāda (many-sided reality)
  • Syādvāda (conditional predication: “in a certain sense”)
• Their dialectics were part of debates with Nyāya, Vedānta, and Buddhists.

4. Bhakti Influence & Jain Practice

• Jain Bhakti also developed, especially among laypeople.
• Temple worship and devotional hymns to the Tīrthaṅkaras became popular.
• Temple architecture flourished (e.g., Mount Abu, Shravanabelagola).

The summary and comparative table for Hinduism and Jain:

Modern Indian Philosophy (1800–Today)

1. Reformist Neo-Hinduism (19th–20th c.)

2. Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948)

• Philosophy: Ahimsa, Satyagraha, spiritual politics.
• Sources: Bhagavad Gītā, Jainism, Tolstoy, Christianity.
• Impact: Influenced civil rights movements worldwide.

3. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (1891–1956)

• Critique of caste & Brahmanism.
• Converted to Navayāna Buddhism with millions of Dalits.
• Integrated Western liberalism, Buddhism, and constitutionalism.

4. Contemporary Indian Thinkers

Modern Chinese Philosophy

1. Late Qing Reformers

• Kang Youwei (1858–1927): Confucian reformism.
• Liang Qichao (1873–1929): Modern nationalism, democracy.

2. New Confucianism (20th–21st c.)

• Xiong Shili, Tang Junyi, Tu Weiming:
  • Sought to modernize Confucianism in light of science, democracy, and humanism.
  • Tu Weiming promotes Confucian values as a global ethical resource.

3. Maoist Thought (1949–1976)

• Mao Zedong synthesized Marxism with Confucian legalism and Chinese tradition.
• Maoist dialectics emphasized class struggle, revolution, and mass mobilization.

4. Post-Mao & Contemporary

Influential figures: Zhao Tingyang (Tianxia theory), Ai Zhiqiang, Li Zehou.

Rise of pragmatism, Confucian revival, and Daoist environmentalism.

Modern Japanese Philosophy

1. Meiji Era Adaptation (1868–1912)

• Western philosophy imported via translation.
• Nishi Amane introduced positivism and utilitarianism.

2. Kyoto School (20th century)

• Tried to reconstruct Japanese identity under modernity.

3. Postwar & Contemporary

• Engagement with postmodernism, technology, and environmental ethics.
• Thinkers like Tetsurō Watsuji (ethics of betweenness) remain influential in global ethics discourse.

Korean Philosophy

1. Confucian Neo-Scholars

• Toegye (Yi Hwang) and Yulgok (Yi I) still studied into the 19th–20th c.
• Emphasis on moral cultivation, education, and ritual harmony.

2. Modern Era

• Christian philosophy, nationalism, and Minjung theology emerged.
• Postwar thinkers explored reunification, social justice, and Korean identity.

Vietnamese Philosophy

• Fusion of Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism with French colonial modernity.
• 20th-century rise of Marxism-Leninism via Ho Chi Minh, then Buddhist activism (e.g., Thích Nhất Hạnh).
• Contemporary work in engaged Buddhism, peace studies, and environmental philosophy.

Common Contemporary Trends in Eastern Philosophy

East–West Dialogue

• Many Eastern thinkers engage Western philosophy (existentialism, phenomenology, pragmatism).
• Buddhist scholars like D. T. Suzuki, Thích Nhất Hạnh, Dalai Lama contribute to global ethics and mindfulness.

Mindfulness & Applied Philosophy

• Buddhist meditation, Vedanta, and Daoist ideas are being reinterpreted through neuroscience, therapy, and ethics.

Globalization & Post-Colonial Thought

• Post-colonial theorists critique Eurocentrism.
• Examples: Ashis Nandy, Gayatri Spivak, Amartya Sen (ethics & rationality), Tu Weiming (Confucian cosmopolitanism).

Some Indigenous philosophy

More for Indigenous Asia :